Note: Acres, rather than hectares, are used in this section. One hectare equals 2.47 acres.

Peat moss plays an important role in horticulture as a growing medium and soil amendment. Home gardeners and professional nursery growers and landscape businesses use it. The following terms commonly used in the literature are defined to help eliminate confusion and misunderstanding about this valuable resource.

peat

The largely organic residues of plants, incompletely decomposed through lack of oxygen.

peat moss or moss peat

Partially decayed mosses including:

sphagnum peat

Composed mainly of partially decomposed Sphagnum moss species. Commonly called peat moss or sphagnum peat moss. Sphagnum peat moss must have a fiber content greater than 66%, all of which is derived from the genus Sphagnum. This is the most important type of peat for horticultural use.

hypnum peat

Composed mainly of stems and leaves from various Hypnum moss species. Hypnum peat moss must have a 33% minimum fiber content, of which 50% must be derived from the genus Hypnum.

reed peat

Composed mainly of reeds including Phragmites, Scirpus, Typa species.

sedge peat

Composed mainly of stalks, leaves, rhizomes, and roots of sedges and Carex species.

reed-sedge peat

Must have a 33% minimum fiber content with more than 50% reed-sedge and other nonmoss fibers.

carex peat

Peat in which significant amounts of sedges remain.

peat humus

Peat that is fully decomposed so that none of the original plants can be identified.

fibric peats

Relatively young mosses that are only partially decomposed. Usually have high water retention, low pH, low bulk density, and little ash.

hemic peats

An intermediate stage of decomposition. Older and more decomposed than fibric peats.

sapric peats

Oldest and most decomposed type of peat ranging in color from dark brown to (humic) black. Sapric peat is an excellent source of energy and used as fuel in many areas of the world.

sphagnum moss

A group of mosses that grow in bogs. In horticulture, sphagnum moss refers to the live portion of the plant that is available packaged in whole pieces, dried or fresh. It is often confused with sphagnum peat moss. Sphagnum moss is most often used to line wire hanging baskets and other types of containers. It is not used as a soil amendment.

wetland

A broad term that is used to describe areas which are waterlogged all or most of the time.

peatland

A specific type of wetland on which extensive organic material has accumulated. These areas with peat-forming vegetation growing on peat, have an undrained layer of peat at least 12-18 inches deep.

bog

Peatland with the water table at or near the surface. The types of plants growing in a bog tend to be limited in diversity because of the acid, nutrient poor environment. Plants found growing in a bog obtain nutrients primarily from rainfall. The most common type of plants that can be found growing in a bog: sphagnum mosses and ericaceous shrubs.

fen

Peatland with the water table usually at or just above the surface. Plants obtain nutrients from soil and groundwater. The most common types of plants that can be found growing in a fen: sedges, grasses, reeds, brown mosses, certain Sphagnum species, ericaceous shrubs, and trees.

reclamation

Ways of using peatlands after they have been harvested. Reclaimed peatlands are commonly changed into natural areas and wildlife habitats that are ecologically different from the original site, converted into forestry plantations, or developed as agricultural cropland.

restoration

Reestablishment of a harvested site as a peatland with characteristics nearly identical to pre-harvesting conditions.

coir

Composed of coconut husk fibers removed during coconut processing. It is the byproduct that once dried, is cut to various size grades and is compressed into bricks for distribution.

compost

The product resulting from the controlled biological decomposition of organic wastes, that have been sanitized and stabilized to a degree which is potentially beneficial to plant growth when used as a soil amendment; compost is largely decomposed organic material and is in the process of humification (curing).

World Peat Resources (4, 13)

Peatlands are found in all parts of the world except deserts and arctic regions. The most extensive areas are located in the northern hemisphere. It is estimated that there are at least 1 billion acres of peatland in the world, or about 4.5% of the total land area.

Distribution of World Peat Resources (4, 13)

Country	Estimated Peatlands	Location of Major Peat Deposits
Former U.S.S.R.	371 million acres	Russia (Siberia)
Canada	272 million acres	All provinces have large deposits.
U.S (w/Alaska)	124 million acres	Florida, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin
Africa	84 million acres	Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, South Africa
Europe	62 million acres	Finland, Sweden
South America	15-25 million acres	Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Argentina, Chile
Central America & West Indies	7 million acres	Cuba, Jamaica, Panama
Australia & Oceania	< 2.5 million acres	New Zealand, New South Wales, Queensland, Eastern Highlands

On an international basis, an International Peat Society (IPS) survey done in 1999 indicated that Canada ranked second in the global production of horticultural peat, after Germany (Table 3). In 1997, total production of peat for horticultural, fuel and other purposes was about 93.7 million cubic metres, of which 65 percent was designated for fuel uses. Ten percent of total global peat production occurs in North America. Canada currently accounts for about 75 percent of this production with about 7.3 million cubic metres of peat harvested (Hood and Sopo 2000). Canada produces approximately 22 percent of the world’s horticultural peat, making it first or second among nations, depending upon Germany’s production in a given year. Of the 13 nations included in this survey five including Canada did not use peat as an energy source in 1997.

Table 3
Peat Production by Country in 1997 (5A)

COUNTRY	ENERGY USE	HORTICULTURE USE
	(x 000 cubic metres)
Belarus	7 848	272
Canada	0	7 250
Estonia	1 367	3 497
Finland	30 120	1 626
Germany	0	9 000
Ireland	8 400	1 616
Norway	0	140
Poland	0	680
Russia	8 680	2 540
Sweden	3 381	1 203
Ukraine	1 225	85
United Kingdom	40	2 500
United States	0	2 201
Total	61 061	32 610
Source: Hood and Sopo (2000)

Characteristics & Qualities of Peat (2, 5, 8, 12, 14, 16)

Peat moss is used in the production of many horticultural crops. The following handout provides a comparison of the characteristics and qualities for different types of peat available.

Characteristics of Peat

Organic Matter of an acceptable quality peat should be at least 80% organic matter, but a high quality peat should contain 95% organic matter on a dry weight basis. The organic matter content is calculated after the ash and water content of the peat is determined using the following equation: 100 - (% ash + % water) = % organic matter.

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. The pH of different types of peat range from a very acid 3.6 to slightly alkaline 7.5. Two terms are used to describe the pH of peat. Low lime peats have a pH value below 5.0. These peats are usually calcium deficient. High lime peats have a pH above 5.0 and are usually calcium sufficient.

Percent Water in peat is technically expressed on an oven-dry basis. When the weight of the water equals the weight of the peat, the water content is 100%. However, this method is not clearly understood by consumers, so the percent water is generally expressed on a moist weight basis, depending on the weight of the peat being sold.

Weed Seed Content is of concern because weed seeds are a soil contaminant. Sphagnum peat moss is virtually free of weed seeds, while reed-sedge and peat humus may contain weed seeds.

Water holding capacity in pure peat varies. Sphagnum peat can adsorb 20 to 30 times its dry weight in water, while hypnum peat and reed-sedge peat can adsorb 5 to 7 times their dry weight.

Nitrogen Content of peat is used to determine fertilizer needs of plants. Peats that are low in nitrogen will require supplemental fertilization for healthy plant growth. Much of the nitrogen in peat is tied up in the organic residue, and is slowly released over a long period of time as the organic matter decomposes.

Structure describes the physical properties of peat. Most baled peats look and feel fibrous or felty in structure, while packaged peat may be pulpy or spongy.

Characteristics of sphagnum peat and other horticultural peats (8)

Type of Peat	Range of Nitrogen (%)	Range of Water Absorbing Capacity (%)
Sphagnum moss peat	0.6-1.4	1,500-3,000
Hypnum moss peat	2.0-3.5	1,200-1,800
Reed-sedge peat (low lime)	1.5-3.0	500-1,200
Reed-sedge peat (high lime)	2.0-3.5	400-1,200
Decomposed peat	2.0-3.5	150-500

Type of Peat	Range in Ash Content (%)	Range in pH	Range in Vol. Weights (lbs./ft.3)
Sphagnum moss peat	1.0-5.0	3.0-4.0	4.5-7.0
Hypnum moss peat	4.0-10.0	5.0-7.0	5.0-10.0
Reed-sedge peat(low lime)	5.0-15.0	4.0-5.0	10.-15.0
Reed-sedge peat (high lime)	5.0-18.0	5.1-7.5	10.0-18.0
Decomposed peat	10.0-50.0	5.0-7.5	10.0-40.0

Degree of Decomposition can be expressed in different ways. The Von Post scale is the most widely used system for determining the degree of decomposition of peat. The degree of decomposition is called the H- value and is expressed by a number on a scale that ranges from 1 to 10, with H-1 being totally undecomposed plant material and H-10 completely decomposed peat. Each point represents about 10% decomposition. The degree of decomposition is determined by squeezing freshly harvested peat in the hand and examining the compressed peat and water. This method is very useful for assessing sphagnum peat but not as suitable for sedge and woody peat. Generally, fibric peat mosses range between H-1 and H-3; hemic reed-sedge peats are H-4 to H-6; and sapric humus peat, H-7 to H-10.

The Von Post Scale of Peat Decomposition (12)

***The Von Post scale of peat decomposition is available in hard copy only, if you are interested in receiving the full text version, please e-mail the CSPMA.

Grades of peat and particle size (2)

There are two classification systems commonly used to determine grades of peat by particle size.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) grades peat by particle size as follows:

Coarse

all particles > 2.38 mm

Medium

particles are between 2.38 mm and 0.84 mm

Fine

all particles < 0.84

Peat grades according to the Norwegian Standard Particle Size are classified in a table that is available in hardcopy format only. You can receive this chart if you e-mail the CSPMA at cspma@peatmoss.com

Comparison of Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties of Organic Materials Used in Growth Media and as Soil Amendments (5,14,16)

Chart is only available in hard copy from the CSPMA, if your are an instructor and interested in receiving a full version copy of this chart, please e-mail us at: cspma@peatmoss.com
Using Peat (2,3,11,14,15)

The advantages of peat have led to its dominance as a basic component in growing media and as a soil amendment. There is no single material currently available that provides all the advantages of peat, although there are many alternative products that are satisfactory in specific uses. Peat is usually sold on a volume basis in bales packed in cubit feet or yards. Baled peat is compressed when packaged so that it actually contains up to 2 times its volume when loosened.

There are several basic requirements of a good growing medium.

1. It must not change its characteristics during the cultivation period (structural stability).
2. It should have good water holding capacity and air porosity for good root development.
3. It should not be too heavy making transportation costs too high (bulk density).
4. Hazardous substances must not occur in the medium. A high salinity level also can be hazardous to many plant species.
5. Must be free of pathogens, pests, seeds and plant propagules that might cause disease or reduce plant growth.

Sphagnum peat is an ideal growing medium because it has:

1. a homogenous composition
2. high structural stability
3. high water and air capacity
4. low pH (3.5-4.5) which is easily adjustable
5. low salt content
6. low nutrient status which is easily adjustable
7. no pathogens, insect pests
8. free from weed seeds

Type of Peat to Use for Various Horticultural Applications (2)

Application	Sphagnum Peat	Hypnum Peat	Reed-sedge peat	Peat humus
Soil amendment	excellent	good	good	good
Top-dressing lawns	excellent	good	good	good
Mulch	fair	fair	fair	fair
Potting soil mix	excellent	good	good	fair
Rooting cuttings/Seed germination	excellent	good	fair	poor

Research Comparing Sphagnum Peat With Coir and Compost (11)

The Peat Research and Development Centre, Shippegan, New Brunswick, conducted research comparing performance of sphagnum peat moss, coir fiber and green compost as amendments in sandy and clay soils, and its effect on the growth of tomatoes and impatiens.

Research found that while compost and coir, in various blends with sandy or clay soil, performed nearly as well as peat moss under certain conditions, none worked as well as peat moss under all conditions.

Test Conditions	Best Results	Worst Results
Tomatoes--clay soils	50% soil, 35% peat moss, 15% compost	70% soil, 30% compost
Impatiens--clay soils	70% soil, 30% peat moss	70% soil, 30% compost
Tomatoes--sandy soils	50% soil, 35% peat moss, 15% compost	70% soil, 30% coir
Impatiens--sandy soils	50% soil, 35% peat moss, 15% compost	85% soil, 15% compost

Recommended usage rates for sphagnum peat in various outdoor applications (3) This chart is available in hardcopy only. If you would like to receive this, please e-mail the CSPMA at: cspma@peatmoss.com

Environmental Issues (1,5,6,7,10)

Throughout the world in recent years, attention has been directed to the use of wetlands, including peatlands and the effects of peat harvesting on the environment. There are several environmental issues that are of issue on both a widespread global basis and on a site-specific or regional basis. In general, development of the only remaining bog in a particular region must be viewed differently than the development of a bog in a region where the majority of wetlands are of the bog class and representative and/or unique bog ecosystems have been earmarked or secured for conservation objectives.

In Canada, peatlands cover more than 270 million acres (about 12% of the surface area of the nation) and comprise 90% of the 314 million acres of wetlands across Canada. The volume of peat moss in Canada is an estimated 3 trillion cubic meters, a major portion of the global peat resource. Less than .02 percent (40,000 acres of Canada's peatland) currently is being used for horticultural peat harvesting and related uses. In comparison, more than 49 million acres of peatland have been permanently converted to other land uses such as agricultural development and urban and industrial development.

The following section outlines the major issues currently being discussed and researched on a global basis and the present situation in Canada.

Issue: Sustaining natural resources

Peat is a sustainable natural resource. Each year more than 50 million tons of peat are estimated to accumulate in the natural environment in Canada, while only 700,000 to 800,000 tons of peat are currently harvested for use on an annual basis.

Issue: Maintaining wildlife habitat

Many birds and wildlife species use wetlands because of the open water and variety of plants. Bogs usually have small amounts of open water, only a few types of plants, and limited cover for waterfowl and bird nesting. Recent research has shown that the use of bog ponds by birds was related to the availability of open water. Waterfowl used the bogs primarily for staging and migration with only limited brood-rearing.

A few species of small mammals, such as muskrat and beaver, and game species such as caribou, moose, and deer utilize peatland habitat. Other species use peatlands on a seasonal basis. Rare or endangered bird and mammal species that are known to utilize peatlands include whooping crane, trumpeter swan, piping plover, and wood bison.

Issue: Preserving vegetation & rare plant species

The type of plants that grow in wetlands depends on the type of wetland, and factors such as climate and topography. A typical peatland bog supports several species of plants such as pitcher plants (Sarracenia spp.), butter worts (Pinguicula spp.) and sundews (Drosera spp.), not commonly found in mineral soils. These plants capture insects to provide nutrients not available from the nutrient-poor peatland soil, and are considered unusual and unique in some areas. Many of these species however, are widely distributed throughout Canada's wetland regions. The ability of these unusual plant species to obtain nutrients from sources other than groundwater enables them to survive in the acid, ombrotrophic conditions of bogs. Another species commonly found in bogs is the black spruce (Picea mariana) which tolerates a wide range of conditions and can be found in non-wetland environments. Other species tolerate only a relatively narrow range of conditions and are not typically found outside a bog environment.

Issue: Trapping of carbon gases due to peatland development

Release of carbon gases into the atmosphere is a possible cause of global warming, also called the greenhouse effect. Draining a peatland accelerates the decomposition process and results in the carbon that is stored in the peat to be released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. However, peat bogs release methane into the atmosphere if left in their natural state. The development of peatlands for horticultural peat production does not have a significant impact on the global carbon cycle.

Issue: Controlling runoff water from developed peatlands

There has been considerable interest in the amount of water discharged from a developed peatland compared to the amount discharged from a natural peatland. The extensive network of drainage ditches established to harvest peat seems to provide the opportunity for rainfall to be lost. In mineral soils, one would expect quicker runoff of water because of the ditches, but this is not the case with peatlands. The reduced water level in the peatland because of the drainage system actually allows for more water storage after rain. As a result, runoff tends to be lower from developed peatlands than from natural, undisturbed peatlands, and the water stored in the peat layer tends to be released over several days minimizing the impact of the runoff on the surrounding areas.

When plant growth on the surface of the bog is removed, the exposed peat particles can be carried into the drainage system and leave the peatland to settle in other areas. Sedimentation ponds are installed as a means of controlling this situation. Design of the ponds incorporate sufficient residence time to permit settling of solids during peak rainfall. Chemical parameters such as pH and a range of elements are also considerations in the operation of a peatland. These factors receive less emphasis because natural drainage waters from bogs tend to already have a low pH. Dilution of drainage waters by receiving bodies minimizes the impact of these factors but short-term concentrations could occur during the initial development of drainage systems when large quantities of water are being released.

Reclamation and Restoration of Harvested Bogs

According to industry sources, less than 4,000 acres of peatland in Canada have been fully harvested. There are several options currently being utilized for bog reclamation and restoration including:

• returning the site into a functioning wetland; with proper management the site can become peatland within 5-10 years
• development of an agricultural cropland or forestry plantation on the site
• establishment of waterfowl habitat by blocking drainage systems can to create ponds or lakes
  

Research by Canadian scientists has shown that the rate of revegetation is as short as a few years on minerotrophic sites, while large expanses of ombrotrophic bogs required in the range of 15 to 20 years to become fully reestablished. Several factors influence the nature and rate of revegetation: water, nutrient status and proximity to other vegetation for recolonization. Liming the soil to reduce soil acidity has been found to speed up the rate of revegetation. With the addition of nutrients on ombrotrophic sites, revegetation of naturally occurring species can occur in less than five years.

Availability of species for recolonization is also a factor. Some species are reintroduced through wind borne seeds, while other species can be propagated by transplants of rhizomes and plant divisions. In Germany, the retention of strips of natural vegetation in the design of new peatland developments has been suggested as a means to enhance the availability of plants for propagation.

Production and conservation policies

Europe

Finland, Sweden and Norway: Each country has a peatland ecological reserve or park program so that there is a network of protected peatlands.

Germany and The Netherlands: Few peatlands exist in their original state. The focus is on restoration and reclamation uses such as agriculture.

Britain: In the early 1990's there was a debate between conservation groups and peat producers about the harvesting of peat in Britain. A compromise was reached between the two groups when the peat producers agreed to set aside large tracts of peatlands for conservation. To replace the peat production that was lost through this agreement, increasing amounts of peat are imported into Britain from the Baltic States and Russia. The debate has also resulted in a strong policy to restore harvested bogs.

Ireland: The National Peat Board (Bord Na Mona) regulates much of the peat production for fuel and horticulture with a legal obligation to manage the peatlands in the best interest of the country. Many environmental organizations are working together to implement a national peatland conservation program. The government policy is to acquire peat bogs for conservation.

The former U.S.S.R.

Uncertain at the current time because of continued geopolitical events after the breakup of the former Soviet Union.

Canada

In 1990, the Government of Canada adopted The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation. The objective of this policy is "to promote the conservation of Canada's wetlands to sustain their ecological and socio-economic functions, now and in the future". The federal policy identifies the key roles industry and governments must take to promote both research and sustainable use of wetland resources in Canada.

The policy also contains a series of principles that direct conservation efforts including:

1. 1. The recognition that on-going development and research is fundamental to the achievement of wetland conservation.
2. 2. Communication and education programs to change the attitude and perception of Canadians regarding wetlands are a vital prerequisite of wetland conservation.

One of the strategies for implementing this policy is the development of a national network of secured wetlands of significance to Canadians which represent the full range of wetland functions and forms.

The Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association (CSPMA) is a trade organization whose members include all major Canadian peat producers. The CSPMA and all Canadian peat producers have adopted a peatland preservation and reclamation policy. The CSPMA interacts with the government, the peat industry, and conservationists to assure the sustainable development of peat resources.
United States

Peatlands are administered at the federal level by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the umbrella of wetlands legislation. Other federal agencies that regulate and influence the use of peatlands are the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Agriculture (USDA)--Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the Army Corps of Engineers.

In addition, individual states can set their own policies which may be more restrictive than EPA rules. For example, peatlands in Minnesota are protected by the 1991 Wetland Conservation Act which requires a "no-net loss" wetland protection program.

Minnesota has developed the "Wetland Banking Program" to support the no-net loss policy. This wetland banking system replaces lost acreage due to draining, filling, or other activities. It allows public and private interests to purchase a specific amount and type of wetland from a holder who has a "bank account" of functioning wetland. This account contains acreage that has been restored from previously drained or filled wetlands, or newly created wetlands.

Minnesota state statutes also require the designation of peatland scientific and natural areas. Activities are regulated in these areas. In addition to the federal agencies, many Minnesota government departments are involved in regulating peatlands in the state including the Department of Natural Resources, Dept. of Wildlife, Dept. of Forestry, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, the Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources, and local Soil and Water Conservation Districts. Private conservation groups also play an important role in wetland protection in the state.

Published by:
Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association
7 Oasis Court
St. Albert AB Canada T8N 6X2
Ph: (780) 460-8280 Fax: (780) 459-0939
Email: cspma@peatmoss.com
Website: www.peatmoss.com

References
1. Bright, Chris. Is Peat P.C.? American Horticulturist. pp. 20-26. December, 1993.
2. Bunt, A.C. Materials for Loamless Mixes (Chapter 2). Media and Mixes for Container-Grown Plants: A Manual on the Preparation and Use of Growing Media for Pot Plants. Boston. 1988.
3. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association. How to With Peat Moss Brochures. 1994.
4. Cantrell, Raymond L. Peat. Mineral Yearbook. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. 1992.
5. Hood, Gerry. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association. St. Albert, Alberta, Canada.
5A. Hood, Gerry and Raimo Sopo. 2000. World Peat Production in 1997. Report to IPPA Meeting of Commission II. Quebec, Quebec. August, 2000. Item 17.5. 6. Jaschke, John and Greg Larson. Minnesota Wetland Conservation Act: Wetland Banking System. Journal of the Minnesota Academy of Science. Vol 59, No. 4, pp 43-47. 1995.
7. Keys, David. Canadian Peat Harvesting and the Environment. North American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada). Issues Paper No. 1992-3.
8. Lucas, Robert E., Paul E. Rieke and Rouse S. Farnham. Peats for Soil Improvement and Soil Mixes. Extension Bulletin 516. Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan.
9. Moore, Peter D. Peatlands. New York. 1974.
10. O'Connor, Dr. Eddie. Peatland Conservation and Restoration. International Peat Society. Conference Papers. International Peat Conference. Brussels. March, 1994.
11. Peat Research & Development Centre. The Evaluation of Sphagnum Peat Moss, Coir Fiber and Green Compost as Amendments in Two Mineral Soils for the Growth of Tomatoes and Impatiens. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association. April, 1994.
12. Puustjarvi, Viljo. Peat and Its Use in Horticulture. Helsinki. 1977.
13. Robertson, R.A. Nature and Distribution of Peat and Peatlands. International Peat Society. Conference Papers. International Peat Conference. Brussels. March, 1994.
14. Schmilewski, Gerald. Peat in Horticulture and Other Non-energy Uses. International Peat Society. Conference Papers. International Peat Conference. Brussels. March, 1994.
15. Swain, Roger B. Of Bogs and Bales. Horticulture. pp. 20-24. Oct., 1991.
16. Walkden, Christine. The Peat Issue. Bulletin of the Alpine Garden Society. pp. 319-323. September, 1993.

Acknowledgements The CSPMA wishes to thank the following people for providing input on and feedback to the lesson plan:

Dr. Gail Nonnecke Iowa State University Intro to Horticulture, Fruit Crops	Bill Randle University of Georgia Intro. To Horticulture	Ellen Paparozzi University of Nebraska Floriculture/Crop Production
Brent McGowan University of Wisconsin-Madison Intro to Horticulture	Dr. Matta Mississippi Fruit Trees/Morphology: Graduate Level	Dr. Renee Schloupt Delaware Valley College Commercial/Vegetable Production/Sustainable Agriculture
Dr. Lois Stack University of Maine Intro to Horticulture, Greenhouse Production	Dr. Evans Iowa State Greenhouse Management	Dr. Kelley Michigan Intro to Horticulture Vegetable crops
Dr. John Bernbaum Michigan Intro to Horticulture, Floriculture	Mary Wiedenhoeft Faculty Teaching Committee Agronomy University of Maine	Dr. Dennis Stimmert University of Wisconsin-Madison Greenhouse Production
Dr. David Taturn 205 Dorman hall Mississippi State Greenhouse Production	Dr. Fernandez University of Maine Forest Soils, Basic Soil Course	Dr. Zekorsky Suny-Coble Skille Interior Plants/Greenhouse Management
Dr. Richard Evans University of California-Davis Container Soils	Dr. Tim Smalley University of Georgia Undergrad Coordinator/Nursery Management, Landscape Courses	Dr. Savoy University of Tenn Soil Testing/Fertility & Master Gardeners
Dr. Cameron Michigan State Intro to Horticulture for Nonmajors	Dr. Susan Wilson University of Tennessee Intro to Horticulture	Dr. Harvey Lang Texas A&M Greenhouse Management & Crop Production
Dr. Estes Mississippi Plant Materials/Arboriculture	Dr. Jeff Krans Mississippi Turf/Plant Science	Mr. Dick Cowhig Delaware Valley College Floriculture
Dr. Williams University of Tennessee Landscape Maintenance, Landscape Construction, Plant Materials	Dr. Hess University of California, Davis Peat Expert	Dr. Mike Montario Suny-Cobleskill Plant Production
Dr. John Day University of Tenn Nursery Management	Dr. Reed Texas A&M Greenhouse Production	Dr. Allen Armitage University of Georgia Greenhouse Production
Dr. John Martin Delaware Valley College Ornamental Horticulture both Greenhouse and Exterior Courses	Tom Shockie Ohio State Intro to Horticulture and Discovery Horticulture	Dr. Terri Starman University of Tennessee Greenhouse Management
Dr. Margaret McMann Ohio State Greenhouse Management	Jeff Keeny LSU Greenhouse Management/Floriculture